PRADHANA CONCEPT

Pradhana refers to the original, unmanifested source of the phenomenal universe. The primal or subline essence of the transient manifest universe. It is Prakriti (matter or primal, ever-changing substance of the universe) in its most dormant state—before the universe is created and before the three Gunas, or cosmic qualities or attributes of Sattva (Purity, Harmony), Rajas (Passion, Activity), and Tamas (Inertia, Darkness), begin to interact. It is the "cosmic soup" or pre-matter from which all physical elements emerge. The term appears prominently in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (4.9-10), which explores the first cause of the cosmos. The Upanishad  describes Prakriti (matter or primal, ever-changing substance of the universe), also called Pradhana, as the imperceptible substratum of the manifest world or pre-matter. Brahman, or the Supreme Self, projects the universe through the power of Its Maya, or the illusionary manifestation. Again, in that universe, Brahman, as Jivatma, is entangled in Maya. Know, then, that Prakriti is Maya, and that Brahman, or the Supreme Self, is the Lord of Maya. The whole universe is filled with objects that are parts of His being. The entire cosmic order is the manifestation of two energies of the Supreme Being: one is Jīva śhakti, or spiritual or superior energy, and the other is called material or inferior energy. Srimad Bhagavad Gita (7.5)  proclaims that material is My inferior energy. But beyond it, I have superior energy. This is the jīva śhakti (the soul energy), which comprises the embodied souls who are the basis of life in this world.

apareyam itas tvanyāṁ prakṛitiṁ viddhi me parām

jīva-bhūtāṁ mahā-bāho yayedaṁ dhāryate jagat (BG 7.5)

The concept of Pradhana (Sanskrit: प्रधान) in Sanātana Dharma (eternal order or eternal righteousness) is associated with the material energy. It is not commonly used in Vedic texts. It is primarily related to the Samkhya or Samkhya school of thought, originating from Sage Kapila, who is credited with creating the Samkhya Sutra. Samkhya or in Sanskrit means ‘enumeration’ or ‘number’ adopts a consistent metaphysical dualism of the Prakriti and the Purusha (Supreme Self, or Pure Consciousness). It describes the number of realities that exist. It is one of the six orthodox system of thought in the Sanatana Dharmic tradition; the others are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.

1. Outline

Pradhana, in the Samkhya school of thought, refers to the primordial matter or the fundamental substance from which the material universe emerges. Prakriti, in Samkhya philosophy, is considered to be the unmanifested, undifferentiated state of matter. Prakriti can be understood as the primal, primordial substance or nature from which the entire material universe arises. It is considered by the Samkhya school to be the root cause of the physical universe, comprising the three modes of material nature: Sattva (Purity, Harmony), Rajas (Passion, Activity), and Tamas (Inertia, Darkness). While the Samkhya school of philosophy argued that this unintelligent Pradhana independently evolved into the universe, famous propagator of Advaita Vedanta, Adi Shankaracharya,  argues against the idea. He contends that Pradhana cannot create anything on its own because it lacks consciousness. Instead, it is governed by Brahman, or the Supreme Self. Adi Shankaracharya states that the source of the universe must possess consciousness. Pradhana as an independent creator lacks it. In his masterwork, Brahma Sutra Bhashya, he designated the Samkhya school (which championed Pradhana) as his "chief opponent" (Pradhana-malla). Pradhana is completely inert, unconscious matter (Jada). In Brahma Sutra (1.1.5), Adi Shankaracharya highlights the phrase "Ikshateh nasabdam", i.e., “seeing or thinking is ascribed to” the First Cause of the cosmos in the Upanishads. For instance, Chandogya Upanishad states that before creation, Existence thought, "May I become many." An inert, unconscious "cosmic soup" cannot think, plan, or desire. Therefore, an insentient entity cannot be an independent creator. A perfect Cosmic Order, according to Adi Shankaracharya, requires that the universe operate with extraordinary order, intelligence, and purpose—from the orbit of planets down to the biological structure of organisms. From the disturbed Prakriti and the Puruṣha sprang up the seed of Mahat (cosmic mind or universal mind), which is of the nature of both Pradhana and Purusha. According to Swami Sivananda, it is the first principle that is derived from Avyakta (unmanifest). It is the first principle that is manifested out of the unmanifested Avyakta. The wheel of the bullock cart rests on the spokes. The spokes rest on the nave. Even so, the mind rests on Prakriti, and Prakriti rests on Brahman (Supreme Self). The Mahat-tattva (cosmic intelligence or the great principle) then covered by the Pradhana and being so covered, it differentiates itself as the Sāttvika, Rājasa and Tāmasa-mahat. The Pradhāna covers the Mahat just as a seed is covered by the skin. Being so covered, there spring from the threefold mahat the threefold Ahaṃkāra (ego)called Vaikārika (purity, harmony), Taijasa (passio, activity), and Bhūtādi or Tamasa (inertia, darkness). These three modes of material nature bind the atman, or internal spirit, to the body-mind mechanisms. According to this philosophy, Pradhana is the sum total manifestation of the three modes of material nature (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas); the original, inactive, unconscious, dormant state of material nature prior to creation, when the material elements are unmanifest. In this state, the three modes of nature are in a state of equilibrium before creation occurs and are thus inactive. Pradhana, is seen as inert and unconscious, lacking any awareness or consciousness of its own. It serves as the substrate for the manifestation of the physical world, providing the material basis for the diversity of objects and experiences. It is often compared to clay, which can be moulded into various forms. In Samkhya philosophy, Pradhana is distinct from the Purusha (Supreme Self), which is regarded as Pure Consciousness. While Pradhana represents the material aspect of reality, the Purusha is considered to be the eternal, unchanging consciousness that witnesses the unfolding of Pradhana and its modifications. According to Samkhya tradition, Pradhana is also associated with the concept of Prakriti, which refers to the cosmic nature or creative potential of the universe. Prakriti is responsible for all manifestation and diversity, while the individual souls, which are eternal, remain passive. When they come into contact with it, they become subject to its influence and become embodied by its realities. Prakriti is an eternal reality and the first cause of the universe. In its pure original form, it is the unmanifest (Avyaktam), primal resource, the sum of the universal energy. It is without cause but acts as the cause and source of all effects and "the ultimate basis of the empirical universe." Prakriti encompasses not only the physical realm but also the subtle aspects of reality, including the mind and the senses. Prakriti, in Samkhya philosophy, is described as the primary substance that interacts with Purusha, the eternal consciousness or spirit. Purusha is considered to be the witness consciousness, uninvolved in the material realm but reflecting its activities. The interplay between Purusha and Prakriti leads to the manifestation of the phenomenal world.

The Samkhya philosophy espouses a metaphysical dualism of the two basic categories of matter and consciousness, where the continuity and dynamic transformations of matter are emphasised. All of the diverse phenomena of the physical world result from modifications of a single underlying source known as Pradhana or primal matter, which is said to be continuous, all-pervading, indestructible, and imperceptible.  Pradhana exists in a balanced and unmanifest state of Pralaya (cosmic dissolution, or by extension, reabsorption, destruction, annihilation, or death) until it is disturbed by the presence of consciousness. This disturbance leads to an imbalance between the internal constituents of Pradhana, and the resulting disequilibrium accounts for the evolutionary transformations of the physical world. Sage philosopher Swami Krishnananda says that the doctrine of the Samkhya posits two realities, Purusha and Prakriti—Purusha being universally conscious and Prakriti being objectively active. Purusha is inactive consciousness, and Prakriti is unconscious activity. The inert character of experience, the unconsciousness that we sometimes experience in our lives, is due to the interference of the gunas (quality, peculiarity, attribute, or property) of Prakriti, which are three in number: sattva, rajas, and tamas. For the purpose of bringing about experience in consciousness, or the Purusha, Prakriti acts through its three gunas.

Pradhana kṣetrajña patiḥ guṇeśa iti hi śrutiḥ, āraṇyake'saṁbhrameṇa hyantar yāmyu papā ditaḥ (103). 

In Svetasvatara Upanishad, it is mentioned that God is above pradhana and Chaitanya (Pure Awareness). Ishvara is superior to both Prakriti and the experience of consciousness. Chaitanya is the one experiencing consciousness, and Pradhana is the Prakriti. Beyond both and superior to both is Ishvara; thus, the Upanishad says In the Antaryami Brahmana of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the glory of Ishvara is described as the indwelling principle in all things.

  2. Evolutes

Imbalance between the internal constituents of Pradhana, leads to the evolution of Tattvas (meaning principle', 'reality, or 'truth'). Srimad Bhagavad Gita says that the field of activities is composed of the five great elements: the ego, the intellect, the unmanifest primordial matter, the eleven senses (five knowledge senses, five working senses, and the mind), and the five objects of the senses. The twenty-four elements that constitute the field of activities are: Pañcha-mahābhūta (the five gross elements—earth, water, fire, air, and space); the pañch-tanmātrās (five sense objects—taste, touch, smell, sight, and sound); the five working senses (voice, hands, legs, genitals, and anus); the five knowledge senses (ears, eyes, tongue, skin, and nose); mind, intellect, ego; and prakṛiti (the primordial form of the material energy). Srimad Bhagavad Gita (7.4) identifies earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intellect, and ego as eight components of material energy.

bhūmir-āpo ’nalo vāyuḥ khaṁ mano buddhir eva cha

ahankāra itīyaṁ me bhinnā prakṛitir aṣhṭadhā (BG 7.4) 

2. Scriptures

Pradhana, in Samkhya philosophy, is interrelated with Sat-kārya-vāda, or the theory of causation. It refers to the fact that every manifestation has an unmanifest cause. It holds that the material universe emerges from the causation of primordial matter, or the fundamental substance. It believes that what is not cannot be produced; effect requires a material cause; not everything arises from everything; the cause produces only what corresponds to its potential; and the effect has the nature of the cause. However, the scriptures say otherwise, asserting that Brahman is the primary cause of the entire creation and beyond. Srimad Bhagvatam aphoristically proclaims that the mahat-tattva, or the sum total of material creation, is to be understood to be the ultimate end of all universes, including all the living entities therein. Brahman is the resort of the mahat-tattva, which includes all material and spiritual entities. It asserts that Brahman, or the Supreme Self, is the master of both Pradhana and Puruṣha. Pradhana means subtle matter, such as ether. Puruṣha means the spiritual-spark living entities that are entangled in that subtle material existence. These may also be described as Parā prakṛti and Aparā prakṛti, as stated in Srimad Bhagavad Gita.

ādhāraṁ mahad-ādīnāṁ

pradhāna-puruṣeśvaram
brahma dhārayamāṇasya

trayo lokāś cakampire (ŚB 4.8.78)

When Dhruva Mahārāja thus captured the Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is the refuge of the total material creation and who is the master of all living entities, the three worlds began to tremble. However, Brahmasutras says Janmadyadhikaranam (I.1.2 (2)), wherein Swami Sivananda in his commentary axiomatically says Brahman, who is eternally pure, wise, and free (Nitya, Buddha, Mukta Svabhava), is the only cause, stay, and final resort of this world. Brahman, who is the originator, preserver, and absorber of this vast world, must have unlimited powers and characteristics. Hence, He is Omnipotent and Omniscient. Who but the Omnipotent and Omniscient Brahman could create, rule, and destroy it? Certainly, mere atoms or chance cannot do this work. Existence cannot come out of non-existence (Ex nihilo nihil fit). The origin of the world cannot proceed from a non-intelligent Pradhāna or Prakriti. It cannot proceed from its own nature, or Svabhava, spontaneously without a cause because special places, times, and causes are needed for the production of effects. Brahmasutras further says that Sastrayonitvat I.1.3 (3) means, according to Swami Sivananda that the Omniscience of Brahman follows from His being the source of scripture. The aphorism clearly points out that the Srutis (that which is heard, or Vedas) alone are proof of Brahman. As Brahman is the cause of the world, we have to infer that Brahman, or the Absolute, is Omniscient. As the scripture alone is the means of right knowledge with reference to Brahman, the proposition laid out in Sutra-2 becomes confirmed. Brahman is not merely the Creator, Sustainer, and Destroyer of the world; He is the source or womb of scriptures and is revealed by scriptures. As Brahman is beyond the reach of the senses and the intellect, He can be apprehended only on the authority of the Srutis, which are infallible and contain the spiritual experiences of realised seers or sages. The Srutis declare that Brahman Himself breathed forth the Vedas. Therefore, He who has brought forth the Srutis, or the Vedas, which contain such wonderful divine knowledge, must be all-knowing and all-powerful. He asserts that Brahmasutras Smrityadhikaranam (1.1 (135)) states that Siddhi (perfection) depends on Dharma, and Dharma depends on the Vedas. No Siddha is authoritative if his view is contrary to that of the Sruti. Smritis, which are opposed to the Vedas, should be rejected ruthlessly. Srimad Bhagavad Gita affirms that prakriti or Pradhāna (material) is inert or insentient, whereas jīva śhakti (spiritual or soul energy) is sentient and gives life form to the insentient one through the combination of Purusha and Prakriti. The Srimad Bhagavad Gītā says earth, water, fire, air, space, mind, intellect, and ego—these are eight components of My material energy.

apareyam itas tvanyāṁ prakṛitiṁ viddhi me parām

jīva-bhūtāṁ mahā-bāho yayedaṁ dhāryate jagat  (BG 7.5)

Sri Krishna emphatically says, Beyond it, O mighty-armed Arjuna, I have a superior energy. This is the jīva śhakti (the soul energy), which comprises the embodied souls who are the basis of life in this world. Sri Krishna in the Srimad Bhagavad Gitā contends:

na me viduḥ sura-gaṇāḥ prabhavaṁ na maharṣhayaḥ
aham ādir hi devānāṁ maharṣhīṇāṁ cha sarvaśhaḥ  (BG 10.2)

Neither the celestial gods nor the great sages know of My origin. I am the source from which the gods and great seers come.

yo māmajam anādiṁ cha vetti loka-maheśhvaram

asammūḍhaḥ sa martyeṣhu sarva-pāpaiḥ pramuchyate (BG 10.3)

Those who know Me as unborn and beginningless and as the Supreme Lord of the universe, among mortals, are free from illusion and released from all evils. Srimad Bhagavad Gita highlights that Brahman, or the Supreme Being, is the fountainhead of everything and controls everything by entering into everything. Simply know that with one fraction of My being, I pervade and support this entire creation.

atha vā bahunaitena kiṁ jñātena tavārjuna

viṣhṭabhyāham idaṁ kṛitsnam ekānśhena sthito jagat (BG 10.42)

4. Remarks

“Thinking” requires consciousness, a blind, inert material substratum like Pradhana cannot think or form an intention to create. As Swami Krishnananda notes on this verse, “It is not possible to find room in the Vedanta texts for the non-intelligent Pradhana” as the independent First Cause, or Brahman. Therefore, the phrase "nasabdam" asserts that the Samkhya concept of a purely unconscious primal matter acting as the independent creator is not supported by the true intent of the scriptures. The First Cause must be an intelligent, conscious principle—Brahman.. In his commentary on Pradhana, Because “thinking” requires consciousness, a blind, inert material substratum like Pradhana cannot think or form an intention to create. As Swami Krishnananda notes on this verse, “It is not possible to find room in the Vedanta texts for the non-intelligent Pradhana” as the independent First Cause. Therefore, the phrase "nasabdam" asserts that the Samkhya concept of a purely unconscious primal matter acting as the independent creator is not supported by the true intent of the scriptures. The First Cause must be an intelligent, conscious principle—Brahman. It is unattached, eternal, and infinite and is Absolute in every respect and beyond. But Pradhana lacks purity of consciousness. It appears to be bound on account of its association with Prakriti. Consciousness and matter cannot get united because they are of dissimilarity; Brahman is primary and Pradhana is secondary. When it is difficult for the experiencing consciousness to distinguish between its experience and that which causes the experience, bondage occurs. Bondage is caused by confusing Purusha and Prakriti. Thus, the inability to distinguish between Purusha and Prakriti is the cause of both bondage and liberation. Bondage is the association of Purusha with Prakriti; liberation is the dissociation of Purusha from Prakriti. Both are eternal; both are universal, the difference being that one is conscious and the other is unconscious. Noteworthy is that the concept of Pradhāna or Prakriti as the primal substance in Samkhya philosophy is distinct from the more commonly known terms used in Vedic literature, such as Brahman (the Ultimate Reality), Atman (the individual self), and various deities and cosmological principles mentioned in the hymns and rituals of the Vedas. However, while Pradhana is a significant concept in Samkhya philosophy, other schools of Sanatana Dharma may have different perspectives on the nature of the material world and its origins. Sanatana Dharmic philosophy is diverse and encompasses a wide range of perspectives and interpretations.

-Asutosh Satpathy